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A
scale model of a Sectasaurus Rex
The following is a speculative hypothesis
investigated by Jimmy
Watson, that builds on the ideas of revolutionary respiratory and structural adaptations to extend the potential size of terrestrial hexapods
(insects)
far beyond what conventional biology would predict. This theory delves deeper into the functional anatomy, developmental pathways, and ecological implications of these revolutionary adaptations. This
discussion adds further details to each key element—advanced active ventilation, a reinforced tracheal system, and a hybrid exoskeleton/endoskeleton structure—while also addressing broader physiological and environmental considerations.
TURBOCHARGED
GIGANTISM IN TERRESTRIAL TERRESTRIAL HEXAPODS: AN EXPANDED HYPOTHETICAL
MODEL
ABSTRACT
Under a unique combination of selective pressures and radical evolutionary innovations, terrestrial hexapods might overcome traditional biological limits to achieve lengths of 2–3 meters—and potentially even greater under ideal conditions. This expanded model argues that, when environmental factors such as hyper–oxygenation intersect with novel anatomical features including advanced active ventilation, a mechanically robust tracheal network, and a hybrid skeletal design, the evolutionary landscape is opened to forms that challenge our fundamental constraints. The model integrates biomechanical principles, developmental trajectories, and ecological feedback loops to present a compelling, multi–disciplinary theory for extreme gigantism in arthropods.
ADVANCED
ACTIVE VENTILATION
Detailed Mechanism: In modern insects, air is moved via simple abdominal pumping, relying on passive diffusion enhanced by ambient oxygen levels. In our speculative model, we imagine an evolution toward a dedicated respiratory pump:
Specialized Musculature: Evolution could favor the differentiation of specialized muscle groups arranged around a central cavity. These “respiratory muscles” might evolve along the ventral or lateral body walls, developing into a diaphragm-like structure. By contracting rhythmically and with high force, this structure would actively drive air deep into the branching tracheae, creating and maintaining steep oxygen gradients throughout the organism.
Synchronized Contraction: The effectiveness of such a system would rely on highly coordinated contractions, potentially controlled by an evolved neural network that synchronizes muscle groups like a metronome across body segments. This level of coordination might be analogous to the sophisticated ventilatory mechanisms seen in vertebrates, though achieved through an arthropod neural architecture.
Biochemical Adaptations: On the molecular level, genes associated with muscle differentiation (akin to myogenic regulatory factors in vertebrates) could be repurposed or duplicated in hexapods, eventually yielding a muscle fiber population optimized for prolonged, rapid contraction. This would allow for sustained active ventilation even as the body mass increases.
REINFORCED
TRACHEAL SYSTEM
Structural Innovations: Traditional tracheal tubes in
insects are delicate, relying on the rigidity of the chitin layer and the passive pressure differential of ambient oxygen. In
this model, several modifications are envisioned:
Ossified or Chitinized Ribs: Rather than simple tubes, the tracheae could evolve supportive “ribs” along their walls. These ribs might be formed by either a localized calcification (as seen in ossification) or by the deposition of denser, highly cross-linked chitin. These reinforcements would help the tubes resist collapse under the increased pressure generated by active ventilation.
Dynamic Elasticity: The interior of these tracheal tubes might also evolve a slightly elastic quality—allowing them to dilate during active pumping without causing structural damage. The incorporation of resilin-like proteins, known for high elasticity in arthropod cuticle, could be one avenue for achieving such flexibility.
Improved Gas Exchange Efficiency: Reinforced tracheal tubes could be arranged in more complex branching networks, potentially interwoven with vascular or haemolymph channels. This would improve gas distribution to core tissues, compensating for the increased diffusion distances that accompany larger body sizes.
MODIFIED
EXOSKELETAL/ENDOSKELETAL HYBRID
Structural and Developmental Considerations: A purely external exoskeleton imposes severe limitations on gigantism due to its weight and the challenges of molting. A hybrid skeletal design would address these issues in several ways:
Internal Support Structures: Portions of the exoskeleton could become integrated with internal chitinous struts or even proto-ossifications—structures that function like an endoskeleton. This hybrid support would distribute mechanical stress more evenly across the organism’s body, reducing the risk of catastrophic failure during growth or movement.
Articulated Plates with Flexible Membranes: Instead of shedding an entire, continuous exoskeleton, a segmented system with discrete, interlocking plates could develop. These plates, joined by flexible membranes, would allow for gradual growth and localized repair without exposing the entire organism to vulnerability. Moreover, each plate might be reinforced from the inside by struts or cross–beams, a design reminiscent of vertebrate bone trabeculae.
Developmental Regulation: On a developmental level, the shift toward a hybrid structure would potentially involve the expression of regulatory genes that govern both cuticle deposition and internal chitin structuring. The evolution of such regulatory pathways might be gradual, beginning with regional differences in exoskeletal thickness and eventually evolving into a clearly delineated hybrid support framework.
Adaptive Structural Remodeling: An additional possibility is that this system could allow targeted remodeling: for instance, mechanical stresses could induce the local deposition or resorption of internal supports, a phenomenon analogous to Wolff’s law in vertebrate bone remodeling. This dynamic adaptability would be vital for supporting the organism through periods of rapid growth or behavioral changes (like bursts of rapid movement).
SCALING
CHALLENGES BEYOND 3 METERS
Biomechanical and Physiological Limits: While the above innovations might comfortably support a 2–3 meter insect, pushing beyond this size range presents additional challenges:
Square–Cube Law Considerations: As organisms scale up, their volume (and thus mass) increases at a much higher rate than their surface area. This geometric reality would require exponential increases in structural strength and the efficiency of the respiratory system. Even with reinforced systems, the law imposes significant constraints unless additional innovations are introduced.
Heat Dissipation and Metabolic Demands: Larger size means more inertial mass and potential challenges in dissipating metabolic heat. The inclusion of an internal ventilation system might facilitate passive cooling via convective airflow, but only up to certain limits. This scenario suggests that hexapods approaching 5–6 meters would need supplementary adaptations—perhaps involving vascular-like fluid distributions or specialized heat sink structures.
Neurological Adaptations: Increased body size necessitates adjustments in neural connectivity and the speed of signal transmission. The evolution of more centralized processing centers or even rudimentary myelin-like structures (or their biochemical equivalents in arthropods) might be required to maintain coordinated control over extended tissues.
Locomotive Challenges: Scaling up also impacts muscle performance, joint articulation, and overall locomotion. The transition from a rigid exoskeleton to a hybrid structure may help relieve some of these issues, but would also need to facilitate rapid, coordinated movement to evade predators or capture prey in a hyper-competitive ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL
AND EVOLUTIONARY CONTEXT
Environmental Preconditions: For these innovations to emerge and be maintained evolutionarily, exceptionally supportive environmental conditions would be necessary:
Hyper–Oxygenated Atmospheres: A consistently high oxygen concentration would lower the energetic costs of active respiration, making the evolution of such energy–demanding systems more viable. Geological periods analogous to the late Paleozoic, or future scenarios in engineered habitats, might provide such conditions.
Low Predatory Pressure or Specialized Niches: The ecological niche of these giant hexapods could be niche–specific environments where the benefits of extreme size outweigh the energetic costs. For instance, isolated island environments or specialized subterranean ecosystems might provide the relative safety required to test such radical adaptations.
Co-Evolutionary Pressures: Predation, competition for resources, and symbiotic relationships could serve as additional selective pressures driving the evolution of these systems. A feedback loop—where increased size leads to further changes in locomotion, sensory processing, and reproductive strategies—would help integrate these disparate systems into a functional whole.
CONCLUSION
This expanded hypothesis posits that under ideal conditions—where environmental oxygen is high and selective pressures favor innovative structural and respiratory adaptations—a ground–dwelling hexapod could evolve to reach sizes of 2–3 meters. Through an advanced active ventilation system, a reinforced tracheal network, and a revolutionary hybrid exoskeletal/endoskeletal design, such an organism could defy many of the natural constraints imposed by the square–cube law. While sizes beyond 3 meters would necessitate even more dramatic modifications, this integrative model provides a framework that is both scientifically intriguing and creatively inspiring for speculative fiction.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
To further test and refine this hypothesis, the following avenues of research could be explored:
Biomechanical Simulations: Create computational models that examine airflow dynamics, structural integrity, and heat dissipation in proposed systems. These simulations would help identify the precise parameters necessary for sustaining extreme body sizes.
Comparative Developmental Studies: Investigate developmental gene regulation in modern arthropods that may serve as precursors to these adaptations. Comparative genomics and transcriptomics could offer clues about how existing structures might be repurposed.
Paleoecological Correlations: Analyze fossil and sedimentary records for evidence of gradual changes in exoskeletal complexity or ventilation structures, offering tentative support for evolutionary transitions toward such gigantism.
Laboratory Experiments: Experiment with extant insects under controlled hyperoxic environments, coupled with genetic manipulation, to explore the potential for induced changes in body size, respiratory efficiency, and exoskeletal modifications.
This integrative, multi–disciplinary exploration not only deepens our understanding of the physiological and ecological constraints on gigantism but also opens imaginative new avenues for science fiction narratives that stretch the limits of biological possibility.
In considering further explorations, one might simulate these anatomical changes using biomechanical models or even explore how experimental manipulation of oxygen levels might hint at the latent potential for increased body size in extant species. This cross–disciplinary approach bridges
paleobiology, evolutionary biology, and speculative fiction, making it a compelling subject for both academic inquiry and creative storytelling.
One
of Jimmy Watson's favorite stories
OXYGENATION, EXOSKELETAL INNOVATION & THE LIMITS OF INSECT GIGANTISM IN GONDWANAN ECOSYSTEMS
- A THESIS ON ARCHITECTURAL & RESPIRATORY EVOLUTION DURING THE CARBONIFEROUS, PERMIAN & TRIASSIC PERIODS
ABSTRACT
This thesis examines how enhanced atmospheric oxygen levels drove insect gigantism on Gondwana during the late Paleozoic and possibly into early Mesozoic times. Focusing on the Carboniferous and Permian periods (with a tentative exploration of later Triassic ecosystems), the work synthesizes
paleontological, geological, and physiological data to argue that hyperoxic environments not only allowed for enormous insect sizes through passive diffusion–based tracheal systems but may also have set the stage for the
evolution of active, forced–air respiratory adaptations. Such adaptations—increased muscular ventilatory mechanisms or even structures analogous to lungs—could have accompanied concomitant modifications in exoskeletal architecture, permitting selective groups (for instance, the precursors of so-called “giant ants”) to breach the 2–3 meter body size threshold. This integrative approach opens avenues for understanding both the constraints and innovative solutions in evolutionary respiratory biology.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Gigantism in insects during Earth’s deep past has long captured both scientific and popular imagination. The Carboniferous and Permian periods, marked by atmospheric oxygen levels that may have reached 30–35% (in contrast to present-day 21%), provided a unique environmental context for the evolution of extraordinarily large arthropods 2. In this thesis,
we explore how these high oxygen conditions, prevalent across the supercontinent
Gondwana, influenced insect physiology—pushing the limits of the diffusion-based tracheal systems known today.
We also propose the speculative yet tantalizing hypothesis that certain insect lineages might have evolved forms of active, forced–air ventilation (akin to lung function) to overcome diffusion constraints, thereby permitting sizes that extend to 2–3 meters in length. This possibility, if supported by morphological and fossil evidence, would represent a radical departure from conventional notions of insect bioenergetics and exoskeletal design.
CHAPTER 2: GEOLOGICAL & ATMOSPHERIC CONTECT OF GONDWANA (ANTARCTICA)
In this chapter, we detail the paleogeography of Gondwana and review the climatic and atmospheric conditions prevailing during the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic periods. Gondwana’s lush swampy lowlands and extensive coal forests are emblematic of environments where oxygen-rich air—an effect of rampant photosynthetic algae and primitive vascular plants—created a natural laboratory for giant forms. Studies have demonstrated that hyperoxic conditions may have catalyzed not only larger body sizes in insects but also impacted the evolutionary trajectories of their respiratory systems. By examining geological records and atmospheric models from these eras, the thesis frames the selective pressures that would favor both gigantism and the development of novel respiratory adaptations.
CHAPTER 3: INSECT GIGANTISM IN THE FOSSIL RECORD
A wealth of fossil evidence from ancient Gondwanan deposits reveals insects that were orders of magnitude larger than their modern counterparts. Iconic examples—such as giant
dragonfly relatives (e.g.,
Meganeura) and enormous myriapods—demonstrate that high oxygen levels contributed to unusually rapid growth and metabolic rates that supported large body plans . While most paleontological records emphasize the passive tracheal respiratory system as sufficient for these sizes, the sheer scale of some specimens hints at potential auxiliary mechanisms. Here,
we review the fossil record, assess the correlation between ambient oxygen concentration and body size, and start laying the groundwork for hypothesizing additional adaptations in respiratory and exoskeletal systems.
CHAPTER 4: THE ROLE OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN & RESPIATORY CONSTRAINTS
The fundamental limitation on insect size today is the reliance on a tracheal network that delivers
oxygen by passive diffusion through spiracles into a decentralized open circulatory system. Under hyperoxic conditions, however, the efficiency of this passive system is enhanced, which is why insects during the late Paleozoic could attain such impressive sizes . In modern experiments, rearing insects in oxygen–enriched atmospheres has produced a measurable increase in body size, suggesting that the diffusion barrier can be somewhat mitigated 3. In light of these data,
we propose that, under extreme selective pressures, some lineages might have evolved an active ventilation mechanism to forcibly circulate air. This forced–air system could use muscular contractions and perhaps a reorganization of the tracheal architecture—potentially even evolving novel, lung-like air sacs—to overcome the inherent diffusion limits. The chapter critically evaluates morphological, developmental, and physiological studies on insect respiration.
CHAPTER 5: EXOSKELETAL ADAPTATIONS AND STRUCTURAL REINFORCEMENT
As insect body size increases, the demands on the exoskeleton for both physical support and effective gas exchange become more formidable. Larger insects would require heavier and more intricately reinforced chitinous exoskeletons to mitigate gravitational stress and potential internal pressures generated by active ventilation systems.
We examine fossil exoskeletal features and compare them to modern examples of structural reinforcement adaptations seen in other large arthropods. This investigation is critical to understanding whether any morphological modifications accompanied the hypothetical evolution of forced–air respiration systems, thereby permitting safe and efficient oxygen delivery within gigantic body masses.
CHAPTER 6: A SPECULATIVE CASE STUDY – THE EVOLUTION OF GIANT ANTS
Although records of giant ants such as those belonging to the genus Titanomyrma are dated to the Eocene rather than the Paleozoic, their existence provides a conceptual framework for discussing the potential evolutionary development of extreme body sizes in social insects. By extrapolating from the known fossil morphology,
we explore the possibility that early ant lineages in a hyperoxic Gondwanan world may have experimented with forced–air respiratory systems. Such specializations would require not only modifications in the tracheal network but also corresponding innovations in spiracle morphology and exoskeletal rigidity. While highly speculative, this examination invites a rethinking of how evolutionary constraints might be overcome under exceptional environmental conditions.
CHAPTER 7: INTEGRATING HYPORTHESES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
In synthesizing the evidence and hypotheses presented, this chapter outlines a coherent model: hyperoxic conditions in Gondwanan ecosystems provided the metabolic fuel for gigantism through enhanced diffusion capacities, while simultaneously imposing evolutionary pressures that may have led to structural and respiratory innovations.
we propose experimental methodologies—such as rearing extant insects under varied oxygen levels combined with biomechanical modeling of tracheal forced–air systems—to test these theories. Comparative genomic analyses may also reveal whether genes involved in tracheal remodeling were under positive selection during periods of gigantism. This integrative approach charts a roadmap for future discoveries that could bridge gaps between paleontology, evolutionary physiology, and developmental biology.
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS
The interplay between atmospheric oxygen levels, exoskeletal adaptations, and respiratory evolution offers a compelling explanation for the phenomenon of insect gigantism. While the classic tracheal system provided a sufficient mechanism for oxygen transport in a hyperoxic world, the pressures of extreme body size may well have spurred the evolution of active,
forced–air ventilation—paving the way for organisms that, under the right circumstances, could reach sizes previously deemed impossible. These insights not only refine our understanding of Paleozoic ecosystems but also suggest that the bounds of biological design are far more flexible than traditional wisdom might indicate.
REFERENCES
DiscoverWildScience article on giant insects during the Carboniferous
[1].
Harrison, J. F., Kaiser, A., & VandenBrooks, J. M. (2010). Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size. Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
[2]
Simon, A. (2024). Atmospheric Oxygen Level Controls on Insect Body Size during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic
Eras. [8]
Wikipedia entry onTitanomyrma. [6]
Study notes on insect gas exchange and tracheal function. [4]
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Beyond the core thesis, further research might examine:
Biomechanical simulations: How would forced–air ventilation in a giant insect function under various oxygen partial pressures?
Comparative phylogenetics: A genomic survey might identify whether extant insects retain vestiges of genes that could facilitate enhanced respiratory mechanisms.
Paleoecological modeling: Integrating fossil distribution data with atmospheric models could refine our understanding of where and when such gigantism might have been most pronounced.
This work not only deepens our scientific understanding of ancient life forms but also invites us to consider how environmental factors can drive unpredictable and radical evolutionary innovations.
What might also be explored is how modern experiments with insects in hyperoxic environments can act as analogues for these
paleo-conditions and what that might reveal about the potential for bioengineering novel respiratory adaptations today.
COMPARING HYPOTHETICAL INSECT GIGANTISM WITH DINOSAUR EVOLUTION
Structural and Respiratory Innovations: In our hypothetical insect model, we propose that radical adaptations in respiration and skeletal support—such as an advanced active ventilation system, a reinforced tracheal network (perhaps with ossified or highly chitinized “ribs”), and a hybrid
exoskeletal/endoskeletal framework—could allow an insect to attain sizes on the order of 2–3 meters (and possibly more, with further adaptations) by overcoming the classic diffusion limits and the weight penalties inherent to a purely external structure.
Dinosaurs, in contrast, evolved along a very different anatomical and physiological path to attain gigantic sizes. Their success hinged on the evolution of an internal bony skeleton, which provided a robust yet relatively lightweight framework. The development of hollow bones with trabecular (internal strut-like) architecture not only reduced mass but also upheld tremendous structural loads. Similarly, dinosaurs evolved a sophisticated, closed circulatory system and, in many cases, specialized respiratory mechanisms. For example, theropods and many sauropods possess air-sac systems—likely an evolutionary precursor to avian lungs—that enhanced oxygen intake, improved metabolic efficiency, and helped to dissipate heat. These adaptations can be seen as analogous to our insect scenario, where overcoming oxygen transport and mechanical support limitations is key to achieving enormous body size. Both cases, though separated by evolutionary lineage and differing fundamental anatomy, face and resolve similar challenges posed by scaling laws (like the square–cube law), which dictate that volume and mass increase more rapidly than supportive surface area.
CONVERGENT PRINCIPLES OF GIGANTISM
Enhanced Material Engineering: Insects in our model would benefit from evolutionary “reinforcements” in their tracheal and support systems, akin to how dinosaurs evolved hollow yet robust bones that provided structural stability without excessive weight.
Innovative Ventilation/Circulation: Just as our hypothetical insects push beyond passive diffusion with active ventilation methods (e.g., a diaphragm-like pump system), dinosaurs evolved specialized respiratory mechanisms (like air sacs) that ensured efficient oxygen delivery even in giant-bodied sauropods and
theropods.
Scaling Constraints: Both groups confronted the square–cube law, which forces any rapidly growing organism to dramatically recalibrate its support and metabolic systems. The theoretical insect adaptations and the proven athletic performance of the largest dinosaurs both highlight that extreme gigantism requires overcoming similar biomechanical and physiological hurdles.
DINOSAUR PREHISTORIC PERIODS
Dinosaurs emerged and dominated during an extensive interval in Earth’s history, primarily within the Mesozoic Era. Their timeline is defined as follows:
Triassic Period (Approximately 250–201 million years ago): Dinosaurs first appeared during the late Triassic. Although early dinosaurs were generally small and occupied ecological niches alongside other
archosaurs, this period laid the groundwork for later evolutionary success2.
Jurassic Period (Approximately 201–145 million years ago): This period marks the explosive diversification and expansion of dinosaur lineages. During the Jurassic, the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea introduced geographic isolation and new ecological opportunities, leading to the evolution of huge sauropods and iconic theropods3.
Cretaceous Period (Approximately 145–66 million years ago): The final chapter of the dinosaur era, the Cretaceous, saw even larger and more diverse forms, including massive herbivores and formidable predators. This period ended with the mass extinction event about 66 million years ago, which brought the reign of dinosaurs to a dramatic close3.
SYNTHESIS AND IMPLICATIONS
By paralleling the hypothetical scenario for insect gigantism with these well-documented dinosaur adaptations, we see some convergent engineering challenges across vastly different organisms:
Respiratory Efficiency: While modern insects rely on diffusion through tracheae, both our speculative insects and dinosaurs would need to overcome similar metabolic constraints with innovative adaptations (active ventilation in insects versus air sacs in dinosaurs).
Structural Support: The transition from a burdensome exoskeleton to a lean, internally supported skeleton in dinosaurs provides a blueprint for how gigantism can be achieved through evolutionary restructuring—a concept mirrored in our proposed hybrid skeleton for oversized hexapods.
Temporal Context: Whereas the theoretical possibilities for insect giants tap into a futuristic or alternate evolutionary narrative, the record of dinosaur gigantism clearly shows that evolution can—and has—yielded organisms that redefined biological limits over a span of nearly 200 million years.
This comparative approach not only grounds our speculative insect model within the context of known evolutionary breakthroughs but also demonstrates how the fundamental challenges of scaling can be met through surprisingly convergent solutions, whether in the form of bones and a closed circulation system or through innovative modifications of an existing exoskeletal plan.
SOME EXAMPLES OF THE LARGEST DINOSAURS, WITH DETAIL OF SCALE AND ADAPTATIONS
Argentinosaurus Often cited as the largest sauropod ever discovered, Argentinosaurus is estimated to have reached lengths of up to 36–40 meters (approximately 120–130 feet) and weighed around 70–100 tons. Its massive size is reconstructed from fragmentary remains—especially broad vertebrae and limb bones—that indicate an animal built for supporting an enormous bulk with columnar limbs and reinforced skeletal features .
Spinosaurus Known as the largest carnivorous dinosaur, Spinosaurus measured between 12 and 18 meters (40–59 feet) in length and is believed to have weighed up to 7–10 tons. It possesses a distinctive sail along its back and a crocodile-like snout that suggests a semi-aquatic lifestyle, setting it apart from other theropods such as Tyrannosaurus rex. Some recent studies even propose that its mass and body plan might have been adapted for efficient swimming and pursuit of aquatic prey 2.
Giganotosaurus Another contender among the largest theropods, Giganotosaurus is estimated to have reached around 12–13 meters (40–43 feet) in length with a weight near 8 tons. This giant, closely related to the better-known Tyrannosaurus but from a different continent (South America), demonstrates the evolutionary potential for massive size in predatory dinosaurs that relied on powerful bites and robust limbs .
Tyrannosaurus rex Although not in the same size bracket as Argentinosaurus or some of the enormous herbivores, T. rex stands out as one of the largest
theropods, measuring around 12 meters (40 feet) in length and weighing approximately 8–10 tons. It is often highlighted for its highly developed jaw musculature and kinetic skull, making it a top predator in the Late Cretaceous ecosystems 3.
Each of these examples—ranging from the colossal sauropods to the gigantic theropods—demonstrates how evolutionary pressures such as efficient respiratory systems, robust skeletal architectures, and adaptive lifestyles enabled dinosaurs to overcome the challenges of extreme body size. While the
sauropods, with their columnar limbs and specially adapted vertebrae, pushed the boundaries of sheer mass and length, the theropods evolved a range of predatory adaptations that were equally impressive in their own right.
Dinosaurs walked the Earth primarily during the Mesozoic Era, which is divided into the Triassic (about 250–201 million years ago),
Jurassic (201–145 million years ago), and Cretaceous (145–66 million years ago) periods. This long interval provided ample time for not only the rise and diversification of
dinosaurs but also the evolution of such extreme sizes among various lineages 2.
LINKS
[1] https://discoverwildscience.com/what-it-looked-like-when-giant-insects-roamed-the-earth-3-241513/
[2] https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2010.0001
[3] https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/tnf1k1/eli5_do_ants_andor_other_similar_insects_breathe/
[4] https://studymind.co.uk/notes/gas-exchange-in-insects/
[5] https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/209/2/367/5930913
[6] https://discoverwildscience.com/what-it-looked-like-when-giant-insects-roamed-the-earth-3-241513/
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanomyrma
[8] https://www.geologyin.com/2023/03/the-largest-ants-that-ever-lived-are.html
[9] https://soar.suny.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.12648/16326/Simon_DWA2025.pdf?sequence=1
[1] https://discoverwildscience.com/what-it-looked-like-when-giant-insects-roamed-the-earth-3-241513/
[2] https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2010.0001
[3] https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/tnf1k1/eli5_do_ants_andor_other_similar_insects_breathe/
[4] https://studymind.co.uk/notes/gas-exchange-in-insects/
[5] https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/209/2/367/5930913
[6] https://discoverwildscience.com/what-it-looked-like-when-giant-insects-roamed-the-earth-3-241513/
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanomyrma
[8] https://www.geologyin.com/2023/03/the-largest-ants-that-ever-lived-are.html
[9] https://soar.suny.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.12648/16326/Simon_DWA2025.pdf?sequence=1
John
Storm adventures are plastic free : )
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